Jordan: 2017

Wednesday, February 8, 2017

Tourism

he tourism sector is considered a cornerstone of the economy, being a large source of employment, hard currency and economic growth. In 2010, there were 8 million visitors to Jordan. The result was $3.4 billion in tourism revenues, $4.4 billion with the inclusion of medical tourists.^[155] The majority of tourists coming to Jordan are from European and Arab countries.^[17] The tourism sector in Jordan has been severely affected by regional turbulence.^[60] The most recent impact to the tourism sector was caused by the Arab Spring, which scared off tourists from the entire region. Jordan experienced a 70% decrease in the number of tourists from 2010 to 2016.^[156]
According to the Ministry of Tourism and Antiquities, Jordan is home to around 100,000 archaeological and tourist sites.^[157] Some very well preserved historical cities include Petra and Jerash, the former being Jordan's most popular tourist attraction and an icon of the kingdom.^[156] Jordan is part of the Holy Land and has several biblical attractions that attract pilgrimage activities. Biblical sites include: Al-Maghtas where Jesus was baptized by John the Baptist, Mount Nebo, Umm ar-Rasas, Madaba and Machaerus.^[158] Islamic sites include shrines of the prophet Muhammad's companions such as 'Abd Allah ibn Rawahah, Zayd ibn Harithah and Muadh ibn Jabal.^[159] Ajlun Castle built by Muslim Ayyubid leader Saladin in the 12th century AD during his wars with the Crusaders, is also a popular tourist attraction.^[7]

Dana Biosphere Reserve in south-central Jordan is a popular tourist attraction.

Modern entertainment and recreation in urban areas, mostly in Amman, also attract tourists. Recently, the nightlife in Amman, Aqaba and Irbid has started to emerge and the number of bars, discos and nightclubs is on the rise. However, most nightclubs have a restriction on unescorted males.^[160] Alcohol is widely available in tourist restaurants, liquor stores and even some supermarkets.^[161] Valleys like Wadi Mujib and hiking trails in different parts of the country attract adventurers. Moreover, seaside recreation is present in on the shores of Aqaba and the Dead Sea through several international resorts.^[162]
Jordan has been a medical tourism destination in the Middle East since the 1970s. A study conducted by Jordan's Private Hospitals Association found that 250,000 patients from 102 countries received treatment in Jordan in 2010, compared to 190,000 in 2007, bringing over $1 billion in revenue. Jordan is the region's top medical tourism destination, as rated by the World Bank, and fifth in the world overall.^[163] The majority of patients come from Yemen, Libya and Syria due to the ongoing civil wars in those countries. Jordanian doctors and medical staff have gained experience in dealing with war patients through years of receiving such cases from various conflict zones in the region.^[164] Jordan also is a hub for natural treatment methods in both Ma'in Hot Springs and the Dead Sea. The Dead Sea is often described as a 'natural spa'. It contains 10 times more salt than the average ocean, which makes it impossible to sink in. The high salt concentration of the Dead Sea has been proven as therapeutic for many skin diseases. The uniqueness of this lake attracts several Jordanian and foreign vacationers, which boosted investments in the hotel sector in the area.^[165]

Natural resources

Transportation

Main article: Transport in Jordan

Jordan ranked as having the 35th best infrastructure in the world, one of the highest rankings in the developing world, according to the 2010 World Economic Forum's Index of Economic Competitiveness. This high infrastructural development is necessitated by its role as a transit country for goods and services to the Palestine and Iraq. Palestinians use Jordan as a transit country due to the Israeli restrictions and Iraqis use Jordan due to the instability in Iraq.^[176]

Queen Alia International Airport near Amman was chosen as the best airport in the Middle East for 2014 and 2015 by ASQ.

According to data from the Jordanian Ministry of Public Works and Housing, as of 2011, the Jordanian road network consisted of 2,878 km (1,788 mi) of main roads; 2,592 km (1,611 mi) of rural roads and 1,733 km (1,077 mi) of side roads. The Hejaz Railway built during the Ottoman Empire which extended from Damascus to Mecca will act as a base for future railway expansion plans. Currently, the railway has barely any civilian activity, it is primarily used for transporting goods. A national railway project is currently undergoing studies and seeking funding sources.^[177]
Jordan has three commercial airports, all receiving and dispatching international flights. Two are in Amman and the third is in Aqaba, King Hussein International Airport. Amman Civil Airport serves several regional routes and charter flights while Queen Alia International Airport is the major international airport in Jordan and is the hub for Royal Jordanian, the flag carrier. Queen Alia International Airport expansion was completed in 2013 with new terminals costing $700 million, to handle over 16 million passengers annually.^[178] It is now considered a state-of-the-art airport and was awarded 'the best airport by region: Middle East' for 2014 and 2015 by Airport Service Quality (ASQ) survey, the world's leading airport passenger satisfaction benchmark program.^[179]
The Port of Aqaba is the only port in Jordan. In 2006, the port was ranked as being the "Best Container Terminal" in the Middle East by Lloyd's List. The port was chosen due to it being a transit cargo port for other neighboring countries, its location between four countries and three continents, being an exclusive gateway for the local market and for the improvements it has recently witnessed.^[180]

Science and technology

Main article: Science and technology in Jordan

The 117 MW Tafila Wind Farm in southern Jordan is the first and largest onshore wind farm in the Middle East.^[181]

Science and technology is the country's fastest developing economic sector. This growth occurs across multiple industries including Information and Communications Technology (ICT) and nuclear technology. Jordan contributes to 75% of the Arabic content on the Internet.^[182] In 2014, the ICT sector accounted for more than 84,000 jobs, and contributed to 12% of the GDP. More than 400 companies are active in telecom, IT and video game development. While there are 600 companies operating in active technologies and 300 startup companies.^[182]
Nuclear science and technology is also expanding. The Jordan Research and Training Reactor, which was inaugurated in December 2016, is a 5MW training reactor located in the Jordan University of Science and Technology in Ar Ramtha. The facility is the first nuclear reactor in the country, and will provide Jordan with radioactive isotopes for medical usage and provide training to students to produce a skilled workforce for the country's planned commercial nuclear reactors.^[183] Jordan signed a contract with Russian company Rosatom in 2014 for the construction of two $5 billion nuclear reactors which are currently under planning and are expected to start delivering electricity in 2025.^[172]
Jordan was also selected as the location for the Synchrotron-Light for Experimental Science and Applications in the Middle East (SESAME) facility, which is supported by UNESCO and CERN. This particle accelerator, which is expected to be inaugurated on 17 May 2017, will allow collaboration between scientists across the Middle East despite the political conflicts.^[184]

Economy

Jordan is classified by the World Bank as an "upper-middle income" country.^[136] However, approximately 14.4% of the population lives below the national poverty line on a longterm basis (as of 2010),^[136] while almost a third fall under the national poverty line during some time of the year—known as transient poverty.^[137] The economy, which boasts a GDP of $38.210 billion (as of 2015),^[3] grew at an average rate of 4.3% per annum between 2005 and 2010, and around 2.5% 2010 onwards.^[138] GDP per capita rose by 351% in the 1970s, declined 30% in the 1980s, and rose 36% in the 1990s.^[139] The Jordanian economy is one of the smallest economies in the region, and the country's populace suffers from relatively high rates of unemployment and poverty.^[84]
Jordan's economy is relatively well diversified. Trade and finance combined account for nearly one-third of GDP; transportation and communication, public utilities, and construction account for one-fifth, and mining and manufacturing constitute nearly another fifth. Despite plans to expand the private sector, the state remains the dominant force in Jordan's economy.^[18] Net official development assistance to Jordan in 2009 totalled USD 761 million; according to the government, approximately two-thirds of this was allocated as grants, of which half was direct budget support.^[138]
The official currency is the Jordanian dinar, which is pegged to the IMF's special drawing rights (SDRs), equivalent to an exchange rate of 1 US$ ≡ 0.709 dinar, or approximately 1 dinar ≡ 1.41044 dollars.^[140] In 2000, Jordan joined the World Trade Organization and signed the Jordan–United States Free Trade Agreement, thus becoming the first Arab country to establish a free trade agreement with the United States. Jordan also has free trade agreements with Turkey and Canada.^[141] Jordan enjoys advanced status with the EU, which has facilitated greater access to export to European markets.^[142] Due to slow domestic growth, high energy and food subsidies and a bloated public-sector workforce, Jordan usually runs annual budget deficits. These are partially offset by international aid.^[143]

View of a part of the capital Amman.

The Great Recession and the turmoil caused by the Arab Spring have depressed Jordan's GDP growth, impacting trade, industry, construction and tourism.^[84] Tourist arrivals have dropped sharply since 2011.^[144] Jordan's finances have also been severely strained by 32 attacks on the natural gas pipeline in Sinai supplying Jordan from Egypt by Islamic State affiliates, causing it to substitute more expensive heavy-fuel oils to generate electricity.^[145] In November 2012, the government cut subsidies on fuel, increasing its price.^[146] The decision, which was later revoked, caused large scale protests to break out across the country.^[143]^[144]
Jordan's total foreign debt in 2012 was $22 billion, representing 72% of its GDP.^[146] In 2016, the debt reached $35.1 billion representing 90.6% of its GDP. This substantial increase is attributed to effects of regional instability causing; decrease in tourist activity, decreased foreign investments, increased military expenditure, attacks on Egyptian pipeline, the collapse of trade with Iraq and Syria, expenses from hosting Syrian refugees and accumulated interests from loans.^[78] According to the World Bank, Syrian refugees have cost Jordan more than $2.5 billion a year, amounting to 6% of the GDP and 25% of the government's annual revenue.^[147] Foreign aid covers only a small part of these costs, 63% of the total costs are covered by Jordan.^[148]
The proportion of skilled workers in Jordan is among the highest in the region in sectors such as ICT and industry, due to a relatively modern educational system. This has attracted large foreign investments to Jordan and has enabled the country to export its workforce to Persian Gulf countries.^[16] Flows of remittances to Jordan grew rapidly, particularly during the end of the 1970s and 1980s, and remains an important source of external funding.^[149] Remittances from Jordanian expatriates were $3.8 billion in 2015, a notable rise in the amount of transfers compared to 2014 where remittances reached over $3.66 billion listing Jordan as fourth largest recipient in the region.^[150]

Industry

The Aqaba Flagpole in the southernmost city of Aqaba, Jordan's only coastal city and outlet.

Jordan's well developed industrial sector, which includes mining, manufacturing, construction, and power, accounted for approximately 26% of the GDP in 2004 (including manufacturing, 16.2%; construction, 4.6%; and mining, 3.1%). More than 21% of Jordan's labor force was employed in industry in 2002. In 2014, industry accounted for 6% of the GDP.^[151] The main industrial products are potash, phosphates, cement, clothes, and fertilizers. The most promising segment of this sector is construction. Petra Engineering Industries Company which is considered to be one of the main pillars of Jordanian industry, has gained international recognition with its air-conditioning units reaching NASA.^[152] Jordan is now considered to be a leading pharmaceuticals manufacturer in the MENA region led by Jordanian pharmaceutical company Hikma.^[153]
Jordan's military industry thrived after the King Abdullah Design and Development Bureau (KADDB) defence company was established by King Abdullah II in 1999, to provide an indigenous capability for the supply of scientific and technical services to the Jordanian Armed Forces, and to become a global hub in security research and development. It manufactures all types of military products, many of which are presented at the bi-annually held international military exhibition SOFEX. In 2015, KADDB exported $72 million worth of industries to over 42 countries.^[154]

Military, crime and law enforcement

Main articles: Jordanian Armed Forces and Law enforcement in Jordan

The first organized army in Jordan was established on 22 October 1920, and was named the "Arab Legion". Jordan's capture of the West Bank during the 1948 Arab-Israeli War proved that the Arab Legion, known today as the Jordan Armed Forces, was the most effective among the Arab troops involved in the war.^[63] The Royal Jordanian Army, which boasts around 110,000 personnel, is considered to be among the most professional in the region, due to being particularly well-trained and organized.^[63] The Jordanian military enjoys strong support and aid from the United States, the United Kingdom and France. This is due to Jordan's critical position in the Middle East.^[63] The development of Special Operations Forces has been particularly significant, enhancing the capability of the military to react rapidly to threats to homeland security, as well as training special forces from the region and beyond.^[126] Jordan provides extensive training to the security forces of several Arab countries.^[127]
There are about 50,000 Jordanian troops working with the United Nations in peacekeeping missions across the world. Jordan ranks third internationally in participation in U.N. peacekeeping missions,^[128] with one of the highest levels of peacekeeping troop contributions of all U.N. member states.^[129] Jordan has dispatched several field hospitals to conflict zones and areas affected by natural disasters across the region.^[130]

An Amman City Centre Police Vehicle.

In 2014, Jordan joined an aerial bombardment campaign by an international coalition led by the United States against the Islamic State as part of its intervention in the Syrian Civil War.^[131] In 2015, Jordan participated in the Saudi Arabian-led military intervention in Yemen against the Shia Houthis and forces loyal to former President Ali Abdullah Saleh, who was deposed in the 2011 uprising.^[132]
Jordan's law enforcement is under the purview of the Public Security Directorate (which includes approximately 50,000 persons) and the General Directorate of Gendarmerie, both of which are subordinate to the country's Ministry of Interior. The first police force in the Jordanian state was organized after the fall of the Ottoman Empire on 11 April 1921.^[133] Until 1956 police duties were carried out by the Arab Legion and the Transjordan Frontier Force. After that year the Public Safety Directorate was established.^[133] The number of female police officers is increasing. In the 1970s, it was the first Arab country to include females in its police force.^[134] Jordan's law enforcement was ranked 37th in the world and 3rd in the Middle East, in terms of police services' performance, by the 2016 World Internal Security and Police Index.^[12]^[135]

Politics and government

Main article: Politics of Jordan

Jordan is a constitutional monarchy, but the King holds wide executive and legislative powers. He serves as Head of State and Commander-in-Chief and appoints the prime minister and heads of security directorates. The prime minister is free to choose his own cabinet and regional governors.^[11] However, the king may dissolve parliament and dismiss the government.^[93] The capital city of Jordan is Amman, located in north-central Jordan.^[8]

The current King of Jordan is Abdullah II who assumed the throne in 1999.

Jordan is divided into 12 governorates (muhafazah) (informally grouped into three regions: northern, central, southern). These are subdivided into a total of 52 nawahi, which are further divided into neighborhoods in urban areas or into towns in rural ones.^[94] The Parliament of Jordan consists of two chambers: the upper Senate (Arabic: مجلس الأعيان‎‎ Majlis Al-'Aayan) and the lower House of Representatives (Arabic: مجلس النواب‎‎ Majlis Al-Nuwab). All 65 members of the Senate are directly appointed by the King, they are usually veteran politicians or are known to have held previous positions in the House of Representatives or in the government.^[95] The 130 members of the House of Representatives are elected through proportional representation in 23 constituencies on nationwide party lists for a 4-year election cycle.^[96] Minimum quotas exist in the House of Representatives for women (15 seats, though they won 20 seats in the 2016 election), Christians (9 seats) and Circassians and Chechens (3 seats).^[97] Three constituencies are allocated for the Bedouins of the northern, central and southern Badias.^[98]
Jordan has around 50 political parties representing nationalist, Islamist, leftist and liberal ideologies.^[99] Political parties contested a fifth of the seats in the 2016 elections, the remainder belonging to independent politicians.^[100] The government can be dismissed by a two-thirds vote of "no confidence" by the House of Representatives. Political parties come under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Interior, and may not be established on the basis of religion.^[101]
The Constitution of Jordan was adopted in 1952 and has been amended a number of times, most recently in 2016.^[102] Article 97 of Jordan's constitution guarantees the independence of the judicial branch, stating that judges are "subject to no authority but that of the law." Article 99 divides the courts into three categories: civil, religious, and special. The civil courts deal with civil and criminal matters, and have jurisdiction over all persons in all matters civil and criminal, including cases brought against the government. The civil courts include Magistrate Courts, Courts of First Instance, Courts of Appeal,^[103] High Administrative Courts which hear cases relating to administrative matters,^[104] and the Constitutional Court which was set up in 2012 in order to hear cases regarding the constitutionality of laws.^[105] The religious court system's jurisdiction extends to matters of personal status such as divorce and inheritance, and is partially based on Sharia Islamic law.^[106] The special court deals with cases forwarded by the civil one.^[107]
The current monarch, Abdullah II, ascended the throne in February 1999 after the death of his father Hussein. Abdullah reaffirmed Jordan's commitment to the peace treaty with Israel and its relations with the United States. He refocused the government's agenda on economic reform, during his first year. King Abdullah's eldest son, Prince Hussein is the current Crown Prince of Jordan.^[108] The current prime minister is Hani Al-Mulki who received his position on 29 May 2016.^[109]
According to Freedom House, Jordan is ranked as the 4th freest Arab country, and as "partly free" in the Freedom in the World 2017 report.^[110] The 2010 Arab Democracy Index from the Arab Reform Initiative ranked Jordan first in the state of democratic reforms out of fifteen Arab countries.^[111] Jordan ranked first among the Arab states and 78th globally in the Human Freedom Index in 2015,^[112] and ranked 55th out of 175 countries in the Corruption Perceptions Index (CPI) issued by Transparency International in 2014, where 175th is most corrupt.^[113] In the 2016 Press Freedom Index maintained by Reporters Without Borders, Jordan ranked 135th out of 180 countries worldwide, and 5th of 19 countries in the Middle East and North Africa region. Jordan's score was 44 on a scale from 0 (most free) to 105 (least free). The report added "the Arab Spring and the Syrian conflict have led the authorities to tighten their grip on the media and, in particular, the Internet, despite an outcry from civil society".^[114] Jordanian media consists of public and private institutions. Popular Jordanian newspapers include: Ammon News, Ad-Dustour and Jordan Times. The most two watched local TV stations are Ro'ya TV and Jordan TV.^[115] Internet penetration in Jordan reached 76% in 2015.^[116]

Geography

Main article: Geography of Jordan

Wadi Rum's resemblance to the surface of Mars has made it a popular filming and tourist attraction, including scenes in The Martian (2015).

Jordan sits strategically at the crossroads of the continents of Asia, Africa and Europe,^[7] in the Levant area of the Fertile Crescent, a cradle of civilization.^[83] It is 89,341 square kilometres (34,495 sq mi) large, and 400 kilometres (250 mi) long between its northernmost and southernmost points; Umm Qais and Aqaba respectively.^[84] The kingdom lies between 29° and 34° N, and 34° and 40° E. The east is an arid plateau irrigated by oases and seasonal water streams.^[84] Major cities are overwhelmingly located on the north-western part of the kingdom due to its fertile soils and relatively abundant rainfall. These include Irbid, Jerash and Zarqa in the northwest, the capital Amman and Al-Salt in the central west, and Madaba, Al-Karak and Aqaba in the southwest.^[85] Major towns in the eastern part of the country are the oasis towns of Azraq and Ruwaished.^[83]
In the west a highland area of arable land and Mediterranean evergreen forestry drops suddenly into the Jordan Rift Valley. The rift valley contains the Jordan River and the Dead Sea, which separates Jordan from Israel and the Palestinian Territories. Jordan has a 26 kilometres (16 mi) shoreline on the Gulf of Aqaba in the Red Sea, but is otherwise landlocked.^[6] The Yarmouk River, an eastern tributary of the Jordan, forms part of the boundary between Jordan and Syria (including the occupied Golan Heights) to the north. The other boundaries are formed by several international and local agreements and do not follow well-defined natural features. The highest point is Jabal Umm al Dami, at 1,854 m (6,083 ft) above sea level, while the lowest is the Dead Sea −420 m (−1,378 ft), the lowest land point on earth.^[83]
Jordan has a diverse range of habitats, ecosystems and biota due, to its varied landscapes and environments.^[86] The Royal Society for the Conservation of Nature was set up in 1966 to protect and manage Jordan's natural resources. Nature reserves in Jordan include the Dana Biosphere Reserve, the Azraq Wetland Reserve, the Shaumari Wildlife Reserve and the Mujib Nature Reserve.^[87]

The Dead Sea is the saltiest water body and the lowest point on earth, swimmers can float effortlessly while receiving health benefits.^[83]

Over two thousand plant species have been recorded in Jordan.^[88] Many of the flowering plants bloom in the spring after the winter rains and the type of vegetation depends largely on the levels of precipitation. The mountainous regions in the northwest are clothed in forests, while further south and east the vegetation becomes more scrubby and transitions to steppe-type vegetation.^[89] Forests cover 1.5 million dunums (1,500 km²), less than 2% of Jordan, making Jordan among the world's least forested countries, the internationally average being 15%.^[90]

Climate

Main article: Climate of Jordan

The climate in Jordan varies greatly. Generally, the further inland from the Mediterranean, greater contrasts in temperature occur and the less rainfall there is. The country's average elevation is 812 m (2,664 ft) (SL).^[84] The highlands above the Jordan Valley, mountains of the Dead Sea and Wadi Araba and as far south as Ras Al-Naqab are dominated by a Mediterranean climate, while the eastern and northeastern areas of the country are arid desert.^[91] Although the desert parts of the kingdom reach high temperatures, the heat is usually moderated by low humidity and a daytime breeze, while the nights are cool.^[92]
Summers, lasting from May to September, are hot and dry, with temperatures averaging around 32 °C (90 °F) and sometimes exceeding 40 °C (104 °F) between July and August.^[92] The winter, lasting from November to March, is relatively cool, with temperatures averaging around 13 °C (55 °F). Winter also sees frequent showers and occasional snowfall in some western elevated areas.^[91]

Islamic era

Main article: Jund Al-Urdunn

Muslims from what is now Saudi Arabia invaded the region from the south.^[42] The Arab Christian Ghassanids, clients of the Byzantines, were defeated despite imperial support.^[48] While the Muslim forces lost to the Byzantines in their first direct engagement during the Battle of Mu'tah in 629, in what is now the Karak Governorate, the Byzantines lost control of the Levant when they were defeated by the Rashidun army in 636 at the Battle of Yarmouk just north of modern-day Jordan. The region was Arabized, and the Arabic language became widespread.^[42]
Transjordan was an essential territory for the conquest of nearby Damascus.^[49] The first, or Rashidun, caliphate was followed by that of the Ummayad (661–750). Under Umayyads rule, several desert castles were constructed, such as Qasr Al-Mshatta, Qasr Al-Hallabat, Qasr Al-Kharanah, Qasr Tuba, Qasr Amra, and a large administrative palace in Amman.^[50] The Abbasid campaign to take over the Umayyad empire began in the region of Transjordan. After the decline of the Abbasid Caliphate, the area was ruled by the Fatimids, then by the Crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem (1115–1189).^[49]

Ajloun Castle in Ajloun built by the Ayyubid Muslim leader Saladin in the 12th century AD used for wars against the Crusaders.

The Crusaders constructed about nine Crusader castles as part of the lordship of Oultrejordain, including those of Montreal, Al-Karak and Wu'ayra (in Petra).^[50] In the 12th century, the Crusaders were defeated by Saladin, the founder of the Ayyubids dynasty (1189–1260). The Ayyubids built a new castle at Ajloun and rebuilt the former Roman fort of Qasr Azraq. Several of these castles were used and expanded by the Mamluks (1260–1516), who divided Jordan between the provinces of Karak and Damascus. During the next century Transjordan experienced Mongol attacks, but the Mongols were ultimately repelled by the Mamluks after the Battle of Ain Jalut (1260).^[50]
In 1516, Ottoman forces conquered Mamluk territory.^[51] Agricultural villages in Jordan witnessed a period of relative prosperity in the 16th century, but were later abandoned.^[52] For the next centuries, Ottoman rule in the region, at times, was virtually absent and reduced to annual tax collection visits.^[52] This led to a short-lived occupation by the Wahhabi forces (1803–1812), an ultraorthodox Islamic movement that emerged in Najd in modern-day Saudi Arabia.^[37] Ibrahim Pasha, son of the governor of the Egypt Eyalet under the request of the Ottoman sultan, rooted out the Wahhabis between 1811 and 1818.^[37] In 1833 Ibrahim Pasha turned on the Ottomans and established his rule over the Levant. His oppressive policies led to the unsuccessful peasants' revolt in Palestine in 1834.^[53] The cities of Al-Salt and Al-Karak were destroyed by Ibrahim Pasha's forces for harboring a peasants' revolt leader. Egyptian rule was later forcibly ended, with Ottoman rule restored.^[53]
Russian persecution of Sunni Muslim Circassians and Chechens led to their immigration into the region in 1867, where today they form a small part of the country's ethnic fabric.^[54] Overall population however declined due to oppression and neglect.^[55] Urban settlements with small populations included: Al-Salt, Irbid, Jerash and Al-Karak.^[56] The under-development of urban life in Jordan was exacerbated by the settlements being sometimes raided by Bedouins.^[23] Ottoman oppression provoked the region's both non-Bedouin and Bedouin tribes to revolt, Bedouin tribes like; Adwan, Bani Hassan, Bani Sakhr and the Howeitat. The most notable revolts were the Shoubak Revolt (1905) and the Karak Revolt (1910), which were brutally suppressed.^[54] Jordan's location lies on a pilgrimage route taken by Muslims going to Mecca, which helped the population economically when the Ottomans constructed the Hejaz Railway linking Mecca with Istanbul in 1908. Before the construction of the railway, the Ottomans built fortresses along the Hajj route to secure pilgrims' caravans.^[57]

Modern era

Main articles: Great Arab Revolt and Emirate of Transjordan

Soldiers of the Hashemite Arab Army holding the flag of the Great Arab Revolt against the Ottoman Empire in 1916.

Four centuries of stagnation during Ottoman rule ended during World War I when the Arab Revolt occurred in 1916, driven by long-term Arab resentment towards the Ottoman authorities^[55] and the emergence of Arab nationalism.^[58] The revolt was launched by the Hashemite clan of Hejaz, who claim descent from the Islamic prophet Muhammad, led by Sharif Hussein of Mecca.^[59] The conquest of Transjordan garnered the support of the local Bedouin tribes, Circassians and Christians.^[60] The revolt was supported by the Allies of World War I including Britain and France.^[61]
The Great Arab Revolt successfully gained control of most of territories of the Hejaz and the Levant, including the region east of the Jordan River. However, it failed to gain international recognition as an independent state, due mainly to the secret Sykes–Picot Agreement of 1916 and the Balfour Declaration of 1917. This was seen by the Hashemites and the Arabs as a betrayal of their previous agreements with the British, including the McMahon–Hussein Correspondence of 1915, in which the British stated their willingness to recognize the independence of a unified Arab state stretching from Aleppo to Aden under the rule of the Hashemites. The region was divided and Abdullah I, the second son of Sharif Hussein arrived from Hejaz by train in Ma'an in southern Jordan, where he was greeted by Transjordanian leaders.^[37] Abdullah established the Emirate of Transjordan in 1921, which then became a British protectorate.^[62]

The first visit of the High Commissioner for Palestine to Al-Salt city in Transjordan in 1920.

The first organized army in Jordan was established on 22 October 1920, and was named the "Arab Legion". The Legion grew from 150 men in 1920 to 8,000 in 1946.^[63] Multiple difficulties emerged upon the assumption of power in the region by the Hashemite leadership. In Transjordan, small local rebellions at Kura in 1921 and 1923 were suppressed by Emir Abdullah with the help of British forces.^[37] Wahhabis from Najd regained strength and repeatedly raided the southern parts of his territory in (1922–1924), seriously threatening the Emir's position.^[37] The Emir was unable to repel those raids without the aid of the local Bedouin tribes and the British, who maintained a military base with a small RAF detachment close to Amman.^[37]
In September 1922, the Council of the League of Nations recognized Transjordan as a state under the British Mandate for Palestine and the Transjordan memorandum, and excluded the territories east of the Jordan River from the provisions of the mandate dealing with Jewish settlement.^[64] Transjordan remained a British mandate until 1946.^[65]

Post-independence

Main article: Timeline of the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan

The Treaty of London, signed by the British Government and the Emir of Transjordan on 22 March 1946, recognised the independence of Transjordan upon ratification by both countries parliaments.^[66] On 25 May 1946 the Emirate of Transjordan became "The Hashemite Kingdom of Transjordan", as the ruling Emir was re-designated as "King" by the parliament of Transjordan on the day it ratified the Treaty of London.^[67] The name was changed to "The Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan" in 1949. Jordan became a member of the United Nations on 14 December 1955.^[10]

King Hussein after checking an abandoned Israeli tank in the aftermath of the Battle of Karameh in 1968.

On 15 May 1948, as part of the 1948 Arab–Israeli War, Jordan invaded Palestine together with other Arab states.^[68] Following the war, Jordan occupied the West Bank and on 24 April 1950 Jordan formally annexed these territories. In response, some Arab countries demanded Jordan's expulsion from the Arab League.^[69] On 12 June 1950, the Arab League declared the annexation was a temporary, practical measure and that Jordan was holding the territory as a "trustee" pending a future settlement.^[70]
King Abdullah was assassinated at the Al-Aqsa Mosque in 1951 by a Palestinian militant, amid rumors he intended to sign a peace treaty with Israel. Abdullah was succeeded by his son Talal, however Talal soon abdicated due to illness in favor of his eldest son Hussein, who ascended the throne in 1953.^[71] On 1 March 1956, King Hussein dismissed a number of British personnel serving in the Jordanian Army, an act of Arabization made to ensure the complete sovereignty of Jordan.^[72] Neighboring Iraq was also ruled by a Hashemite monarchy; Faisal II of Iraq, who was Hussein's cousin. 1958 witnessed the emergence of the Arab Federation between the two kingdoms, as a response to the formation of the United Arab Republic between Egypt and Syria. The union lasted only six months, being dissolved after Faisal II was deposed by a military coup.^[73]
Jordan signed a military pact with Egypt just before Israel launched a preemptive strike on Egypt to begin the Six-Day War in June 1967, where Jordan and Syria joined the war. It ended in an Arab defeat and the West Bank came under Israeli control. Jordan also fought in the War of Attrition, which included the 1968 Battle of Karameh where the combined forces of the Jordanian Armed Forces and the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) repelled an Israeli attack on the Karameh camp on the Jordanian border with the West Bank.^[74] Despite the fact that the Palestinians had limited involvement against the Israeli forces, the events at Karameh gained wide recognition and acclaim in the Arab world. As a result, the time period following the battle witnessed an upsurge of support for Palestinian paramilitary elements (the fedayeen) within Jordan from other Arab countries, the fedayeen soon became a threat to Jordan's rule of law. In September 1970, the Jordanian army targeted the fedayeen and the resultant fighting led to the expulsion of Palestinian fighters from various PLO groups into Lebanon, in a civil war that became known as Black September.^[75]

A Jordanian Bedouin forces officer in Petra 2004.

During the Yom Kippur War in 1973, Arab league forces waged a war on Israel and fighting occurred along the 1967 Jordan River cease-fire line. Jordan sent a brigade to Syria to attack Israeli units on Syrian territory but did not engage Israeli forces from Jordanian territory. At the Rabat summit conference in 1974, Jordan agreed, along with the rest of the Arab League, that the PLO was the "sole legitimate representative of the Palestinian people". Subsequently, Jordan renounced its claims to the West Bank in 1988.^[75]
At the 1991 Madrid Conference, Jordan agreed to negotiate a peace treaty sponsored by the US and the Soviet Union. The Israel-Jordan Treaty of Peace was signed on 26 October 1994.^[75] In 1997, Israeli agents allegedly entered Jordan using Canadian passports and poisoned Khaled Meshal, a senior Hamas leader. Israel provided an antidote to the poison and released dozens of political prisoners, including Sheikh Ahmed Yassin after King Hussein threatened to annul the peace treaty.^[75]
On 7 February 1999, Abdullah II ascended the throne upon the death of his father Hussein.^[76] Jordan's economy has improved since then. Abdullah II has been credited with increasing foreign investment, improving public-private partnerships and providing the foundation for Aqaba's free-trade zone and Jordan's flourishing information and communication technology (ICT) sector. He also set up five other special economic zones. As a result of these reforms, Jordan's economic growth has doubled to 6% annually compared to the latter half of the 1990s.^[77] However, the Great Recession and regional turmoil in the 2010s severely crippled the Jordanian economy and its growth, making it increasingly reliant on foreign aid.^[78]
Al-Qaeda under Abu Musab al-Zarqawi's leadership launched coordinated explosions in three hotel lobbies in Amman on 9 November 2005, resulting in 60 deaths and 115 injured. The bombings, which targeted civilians, caused widespread outrage among Jordanians.^[79] The attack is considered to be a rare event in the country, and Jordan's internal security was dramatically improved afterwards. No major terrorist attacks have occurred since then.^[80]
The Arab Spring began sweeping the Arab world in 2011, where large scale protests erupted demanding economic and political reforms. However, many of these protests in some countries turned into civil wars and more instability. In Jordan, in response to domestic unrest, Abdullah II replaced his prime minister and introduced a number of reforms including; amending the Constitution and establishing a number of governmental commissions.^[81] The King told the new prime minister to "take quick, concrete and practical steps to launch a genuine political reform process, to strengthen democracy and provide Jordanians with the dignified life they deserve".^[82]